The Ether And Matter

The Relations Between The Ether And Matter

For some time past, it has been the more or less avowed ambition of physicists to construct with the particles of ether all possible forms of corporeal existence.

But our knowledge of the inmost nature of things has hitherto seemed too limited to have any chance of success in this.

The electronic hypothesis, however, has:

• furnished a satisfactory image of the most curious phenomena produced in the bosom of matter
• led to a more complete electromagnetic theory of the ether than that of Maxwell

This twofold result has given birth to the hope of arriving at a complete co-ordination of the physical world.

The phenomena whose study may bring us to the very threshold of the problem, are those in which the connections between matter and the ether appear clearly and in a relatively simple manner.

Thus in the phenomena of emission, ponderable matter is seen to give birth to waves which are transmitted by the ether, and by the phenomena of absorption it is proved that these waves disappear and excite modifications in the interior of the material bodies which receive them. We here catch in operation actual reciprocal actions and reactions between the ether and matter.

If we could thoroughly comprehend these actions, we will be able to fill the gap which separates the 2 regions separately conquered by physical science.

In recent years, numerous researches have supplied valuable materials which should be utilized by those endeavouring to construct a theory of radiation.

We are, perhaps, still ill informed as to the phenomena of luminescence in which undulations are produced in a complex manner, as in the case of a stick of moist phosphorus which is luminescent in the dark, or in that of a fluorescent screen. But we are very well acquainted with emission or absorption by incandescence, where the only transformation is that of calorific into radiating energy, or vice versa. It is in this case alone that can be correctly applied the celebrated demonstration by which Kirchhoff established, by considerations borrowed from thermodynamics, the proportional relations between the power of emission and that of absorption.

In treating of the measurement of temperature, I have already pointed out the experiments of Professors Lummer and Pringsheim and the theoretical researches of Stephan and Professor Wien. We may consider that at the present day the laws of the radiation of dark bodies are tolerably well known, and, in particular, the manner in which each elementary radiation increases with the temperature.

A few doubts, however, subsist with respect to the law of the distribution of energy in the spectrum.

In the case of real and solid bodies the results are naturally less simple than in that of dark bodies. One side of the question has been specially studied on account of its great practical interest, that is to say, the fact that the relation of the luminous energy to the total amount radiated by a body varies with the nature of this last; and the knowledge of the conditions under which this relation becomes most considerable led to the discovery of incandescent lighting by gas in the Auer-Welsbach mantle, and to the substitution for the carbon thread in the electric light bulb of a filament of osmium or a small rod of magnesium, as in the Nernst lamp.

Careful measurements effected by M. Fery have furnished, in particular, important information on the radiation of the white oxides; but the phenomena noticed have not yet found a satisfactory interpretation.

Moreover, the radiation of calorific origin is here accompanied by a more or less important luminescence, and the problem becomes very complex.

In the same way that, for the purpose of knowing the constitution of matter, it first occurred to us to investigate gases, which appear to be molecular edifices built on a more simple and uniform plan than solids, we ought naturally to think that an examination of the conditions in which emission and absorption are produced by gaseous bodies might be eminently profitable, and might perhaps reveal the mechanism by which the relations between the molecule of the ether and the molecule of matter might be established.

Unfortunately, if a gas is not absolutely incapable of emitting some sort of rays by simple heat, the radiation thus produced, no doubt by reason of the slightness of the mass in play, always remains of moderate intensity. In nearly all the experiments, new energies of chemical or electrical origin come into force.

On incandescence, luminescence is superposed; and the advantage which might have been expected from the simplicity of the medium vanishes through the complication of the circumstances in which the phenomenon is produced.

Professor Pringsheim has succeeded, in certain cases, in finding the dividing line between the phenomena of luminescence and that of incandescence.

Thus the former takes a predominating importance when the gas is rendered luminous by electrical discharges, and chemical transformations, especially, play a preponderant rôle in the emission of the spectrum of flames which contain a saline vapour.

In all the ordinary experiments of spectrum analysis the laws of Kirchhoff cannot therefore be considered as established, and yet the relation between emission and absorption is generally tolerably well verified. No doubt we are here in presence of a kind of resonance phenomenon, the gaseous atoms entering into vibration when solicited by the ether by a motion identical with the one they are capable of communicating to it.

If we are not yet very far advanced in the study of the mechanism of the production of the spectrum,[47] we are, on the other hand, well acquainted with its constitution.

The extreme confusion which the spectra of the lines of the gases seemed to present is now, in great part at least, cleared up.

Balmer gave some time since, in the case of the hydrogen spectrum, an empirical formula which enabled the rays discovered later by an eminent astronomer, M. Deslandres, to be represented; but since then, both in the cases of line and band spectra, the labours of Professor Rydberg, of M. Deslandres, of Professors Kayzer and Runge, and of M. Thiele, have enabled us to comprehend, in their smallest details, the laws of the distribution of lines and bands.

These laws are simple, but somewhat singular. The radiations emitted by a gas cannot be compared to the notes to which a sonorous body gives birth, nor even to the most complicated vibrations of any elastic body.

The number of vibrations of the different rays are not the successive multiples of one and the same number, and it is not a question of a fundamental radiation and its harmonics, while—and this is an essential difference—the number of vibrations of the radiation tend towards a limit when the period diminishes infinitely instead of constantly increasing, as would be the case with the vibrations of sound.

Thus the assimilation of the luminous to the elastic vibration is not correct. Once again we find that the ether does not behave like matter which obeys the ordinary laws of mechanics, and every theory must take full account of these curious peculiarities which experiment reveals.

Another difference, likewise very important, between the luminous and the sonorous vibrations, which also points out how little analogous can be the constitutions of the media which transmit the vibrations, appears in the phenomena of dispersion.

The speed of propagation, which, as we have seen when discussing the measurement of the velocity of sound, depends very little on the musical note, is not at all the same in the case of the various radiations which can be propagated in the same substance. The index of refraction varies with the duration of the period, or, if you will, with the length of wave in vacuo which is proportioned to this duration, since in vacuo the speed of propagation is entirely the same for all vibrations.

Cauchy was the first to propose a theory on which other attempts have been modelled; for example, the very interesting and simple one of Briot.

This last-named supposed that the luminous vibration could not perceptibly drag with it the molecular material of the medium across which it is propagated, but that matter, nevertheless, reacts on the ether with an intensity proportional to the elongation, in such a manner as tends to bring it back to its position of equilibrium.

With this simple hypothesis we can fairly well interpret the phenomena of the dispersion of light in the case of transparent substances; but far from well, as M. Carvallo has noted in some extremely careful experiments, the dispersion of the infra-red spectrum, and not at all the peculiarities presented by absorbent substances.

M. Boussinesq arrives at almost similar results, by attributing dispersion, on the other hand, to the partial dragging along of ponderable matter and to its action on the ether. By combining, in a measure, as was subsequently done by M. Boussinesq, the two hypotheses, formulas can be established far better in accord with all the known facts.

These facts are somewhat complex. It was at first thought that the index always varied in inverse ratio to the wave-length, but numerous substances have been discovered which present the phenomenon of abnormal dispersion—that is to say, substances in which certain radiations are propagated, on the contrary, the more quickly the shorter their period. This is the case with gases themselves, as demonstrated, for example, by a very elegant experiment of M. Becquerel on the dispersion of the vapour of sodium. Moreover, it may happen that yet more complications may be met with, as no substance is transparent for the whole extent of the spectrum. In the case of certain radiations the speed of propagation becomes nil, and the index shows sometimes a maximum and sometimes a minimum. All those phenomena are in close relation with those of absorption.

It is, perhaps, the formula proposed by Helmholtz which best accounts for all these peculiarities. Helmholtz came to establish this formula by supposing that there is a kind of friction between the ether and matter, which, like that exercised on a pendulum, here produces a double effect, changing, on the one hand, the duration of this oscillation, and, on the other, gradually damping it. He further supposed that ponderable matter is acted on by elastic forces. The theory of Helmholtz has the great advantage of representing, not only the phenomena of dispersion, but also, as M. Carvallo has pointed out, the laws of rotatory polarization, its dispersion and other phenomena, among them the dichroism of the rotatory media discovered by M. Cotton.

In the establishment of these theories, the language of ordinary optics has always been employed. The phenomena are looked upon as due to mechanical deformations or to movements governed by certain forces. The electromagnetic theory leads, as we have seen, to the employment of other images. M.H. Poincaré, and, after him, Helmholtz, have both proposed electromagnetic theories of dispersion. On examining things closely, it will be found that there are not, in truth, in the two ways of regarding the problem, two equivalent translations of exterior reality. The electrical theory gives us to understand, much better than the mechanical one, that in vacuo the dispersion ought to be strictly null, and this absence of dispersion appears to be confirmed with extraordinary precision by astronomical observations. Thus the observation, often repeated, and at different times of year, proves that in the case of the star Algol, the light of which takes at least four years to reach us, no sensible difference in coloration accompanies the changes in brilliancy.