The General Theory of Chemistry

Section. 1: The Structure of SIMPLE, MIX’D, COMPOUND and AGGREGATE MATTER.

1. Mixed, compound, and aggregate Bodies are the Subject of Chemistry. And so we should consider their chemical Struture.

2. All natural Bodies are either simple or compounded

• The simple do not confift of phyfical parts
• But the compounded do.

The simple are Principles, or the first material causes of Mixts and the compounded, according to the difference of their mixture, are either mix’d, compound or aggregate mix’d, if compofed merely of Principles;

compound, if form’d of Mixts into any determinable single thing; and aggregate, when several such things form matter.

3. A Principle is defined:

• à priori, that in mix’d matter, which first existed
• à pofteriori, that into which it is at laft refolved.

4. Both these Definitions are exact, if we allow of a pure, natural resolution.

But as this is not eafily obtainable from the Chemistry of these days, and fo can hardly be come at by Arts a difference, at prefent, prevails between the pbysical and chemical Principles of mix’d Bodies.

5. Phyfical Principles have a Mixt which is really compofed.

But they are not hitherto settled for the 4 Peripatetical Elements, according to their vulgar acceptation, do not deserve this title.

Thofe are ufually term’d chemical Principles, into which all Bodies are found reducible by the chemical operations hitherto known.

6. These chemical Principles are called Salt, in-Sulphur and Mercury.

The analogy being taken from Minerals: or, Salt, Oil and Spirit; to which Dr. Willis adds Phlegm and Earth.

Phlegm is comprehended under Spirit.

• And so phlogiston is not Phlegm.

Phlegm consists of Water, Oil and Salt.

7. But as the four Peripatetic Elements, howfo- ever understood, cannot have place, if fuppofed fpecifically the fame in all Subjects;

fo neither can the Chemical Principles: for no-one has hi- therto pretended to fhew that thefe Principles are fpecifically the fame in all Bodies. But if con- fider’d only as to their generical qualities, the- may be allow’d in Compounds.

8. We say particularly in Compounds, be all the darkness and difputes about Principle are from a neglect of that real diftinction bet original and fecondary Mixts, or Mixts conf of Principles and Bodies compounded of

Whilft these two are confounded, and fupp to be refolved by an operation that is contrai Nature, the common chemical Principles of v tables, animals and minerals are produced, prove in reality artificial Mixts: but when C pounds are feparated by bare refolution, with the leaft combination, their Principles are nati Mixts.

9. By juftly diftinguishing between Mix’s Compounds, without directly undertaking to hibit the first Principles of the latter, we may fily fettle this affair.

Helmont and Becher ha attempted it; the former taking Water for i first and only material Principle of all things; a the other, Water and Earth; but diftinguishi the Earth into three kinds".

10. The Opinion of Helmont is juft, with rega to the ultimate Refolubility of things; as may fhewn by actual Operations as well as by phy! cal Reafons. But confidering the manner of a tion that obtain’d after the Creation, we nee not go fo far back as to Water for the Principle

11. Like Becher, I regard Water and Earth for the immediate material Principles of Mixts

This Earth is of 3 kinds:

1. Vitrifiable or fufible
2. inflammable in compofition
3. liquifiable or fpecifically mercurial in Metals

The Proof hereof belonging to the fecond or analytical Part, we referve it for its proper place: in the mean time taking this for granted, that there are but very few Mixts; otherwife Compounds would be almost infinite: which it were hard to allow.

14. But as to conftitute any thing there is re- quired both an efficient and a form, as well as mat- ter; these Caufes of Mixts muft alfo be enquired into. The efficient here is of two kinds, principal and lefs principal.

The principal is the actual Confervation of things, which we improperly call Nature; but properly, and with due reverence, the

15. This makes ufe of the lefs principal, wh is local motion, as an inftrument, that by its effet applies and joins together things difpofed to co bine: which conjunction, either abfolutely or fpectively (by means of contiguous bodies) it ve ftrictly preferves. Some will have Fire to be t inftrumental caufe of this Motion; and not wit out reafon, if they diftinguifh between the Inftr ments of Art and Natures and between the mea of original Mixture and the fecondary, which Compofition.

16. The chemical and phyfical Operations of A and Nature, differ as to time and place. Natur produces where it finds the Principles; but th Chemift collects his Principles, and produce where he pleases: Nature produces when th Principles meet one another, as it were by acci dent; but the Chemist brings these Principles to gether, at the time he wou’d produce: In short, Nature acts by the means of general motion; but the Artist applies particular motions to his Sub- jects, at a certain time, in a certain place, and fo can operate where and when he pleases; but Nature only when and where opportunity fpon- taneously allows.

17. If Water alone be acknowledged the first Principle, Fire alone may be properly supposed the inftrumental Efficient of Art.

18. The Form of Mixts is either generical, viz.? that of Mixture itself; or Specifical, viz. that of’ Mixts fpecifically different. The Generical is the combination of Principles numerically and effen- tially different, tho’ not neceffarily oppofites. The Specifical, being unknown to the understand- ing, depends upon the different figure, number and fituation of the material Principles. Thus, :f ›mpounds The Structure of Matter. Part I. if, according to Becher, there were in reality four Principles, viz. Water, and three kinds of Earth, each capable of changing its fituation, with its change of place; as the number four added to four makes eight, and as eight may be transposed forty thousand three hundred and twenty ways, it follows, that four Principles, thus alter’d in fi tuation, and tranfpofed, might form forty thou fand three hundred and twenty Mixts, effentially differing from each other.

19. But as, according to what was before ob ferved t, the primary Mixts muft of neceffity b very few, with regard to fuch a large number fo à pofteriori this hypothefis alfo, of four Prin ciples, is not ftrictly true. We may however ve ry well allow it as the most probable; and til time fhall make farther difcoveries, retain it fo the better explanation of chemical Operations an Phænomena.

20. We have already obferved, that a primar Mixt refults immediately from Principles; a fe condary one immediately from primary Mixt and an Aggregate from feveral mix’d or eve fimple matters together; without any regard t the quality of the component Atoms, whether i number, weight or measure II.

21. We are farther to obferve of fecondar to be Mixts or Compounds, (which vulgarly pass unde

According to Becher, there are 4 Principles: Water, and three kinds of Earth", each capable of changing its fituation, with its change of place; as the number four added to four makes eight, and as eight may be transposed forty thousand three hundred and twenty ways.

It follows, that four Principles, thus alter’d in fi tuation, and tranfpofed, might form forty thou fand three hundred and twenty Mixts, effentially differing from each other.

19. But as, according to what was before ob’ ferved +, the primary Mixts muft of neceffity b very few, with regard to fuch a large number fo à pofteriori this hypothefis alfo, of four Prin ciples, is not ftrictly true. We may however ve ry well allow it as the moft probable; and til time fhall make farther difcoveries, retain it fo the better explanation of chemical Operations an Phænomena.

20. A primar Mixt refults immediately from Principles; a fe condary one immediately from primary Mixt and an Aggregate from feveral mix’d or eve fimple matters together; without any regard t the quality of the component Atoms, whether i number, weight or measure II.

21. We are farther to obferve of fecondar Mixts or Compounds, (which vulgarly pass unde

Let it be here particularly obferved, that an Aggrega may confift of homogeneous particles, provided they are b numerous enough: which neither a Mixt, nor al Compou can do, for both thefe require that their component ato be he.erogeneous. Thus then according to Becher, Bo general is divided into Principles, Mixts and Compounds from a different combination of Mixes and Compour" ceed Decompounds and even Super-decompounds. I See §. 1. 9. 2. pag. 7. note.

1. The Structure of Matter. the general name of Mixts) that as they à priori, fo they do alfo à pofteriori. They be known by this property, that they prefe and with cafe feparate into heterogeneous.par

2. For fuch is the firmnefs of Mixture and riginal Mixts, that fome efteem it an impoffibi in Chemistry to feparate their Principles y judge that these can only be made appear by mentation: but Compounds, as they are caf diffolved, fo are they readily united by Art.

3. An Aggregate is diftinguifh’d from an tom, in that an Atom is one numerical individual but an Aggregate feveral Atoms combined togeth by contiguity.

4. The perplext Doctrine of Continuity an Contiguity may be cleared up by obferving tha Mixture is nothing but a Conjunction of Principl by Contiguity. For as Principles are fimple things and not compounded of others, they muft necef farily have their proper and determinate figure (whereon their Form depends) and probably their determinate fize, or the fmalleft dimenfion; fc that if any thing be taken from their bulk, they lofe fo much of their Effence. That, therefore, which is circumfcribed by a certain figure, under

the general name of Mixts) that as they à priori, fo they do alfo à pofteriori. They be known by this property, that they prefe and with cafe feparate into heterogeneous.par

22. For fuch is the firmnefs of Mixture and riginal Mixts, that fome efteem it an impoffibi in Chemistry to feparate their Principles * y judge that thefe can only be made appear by s mentation but Compounds, as they are caf diffolved, fo are they readily united by Art.

23. An Aggregate is diftinguifh’d from an tom, in that an Atom is one numerical individual but an Aggregate feveral Atoms combined togeth by contiguity.

24. The perplext Doctrine of Continuity an Contiguity may be cleared up by obferving tha Mixture is nothing but a Conjunction of Principl by Contiguity. For as Principles are simple things and not compounded of others, they must necef farily have their proper and determinate figure (whereon their Form depends) and probably thei determinate fize, or the fmalleft dimenfion; fc that if any thing be taken from their bulk, they lofe fo much of their Effence. That, therefore, which is circumfcribed by a certain figure, under a certain dimenfion, is a Continuum. But in Mixts, Compounds and Aggregates, a juft number and fituation

As being Corpufcles of the utmoft poffible phyfical Subtili- ty, and confequently of extreme mobility; fo that they are very apt either to move all together, or elfe, by reafon of their par- tícular figure and connection, to adhere moft tenaciouily; whence it becomes extremely difficult indeed to effect a feparation, or fo much as a durable tranfpofition thereof; without the admixture of fome other particles.

Hence there are but fimall hopes of refolving perfect Mixts by any Methods of the vulgar Chemiftry: but for this purpose re- courfe must be had to more powerful Inftruments; of which more in due time.

to be bad in

Pa tuation of Principles makes Contiguity: and ever affects this, affects Continuity alfo. when common Sulphur and Quick-filver, i compofition of Cinnabar, are moved from place and feparated, the effential Continu Cinnabar is destroyed, by the Deftruction o Contiguity. In fine, Contiguity regards the junction of Principles; but Continuity their c vation in this ftate, when join’d.

The Regard

25. Hence, for our direction in the Pr the practice of Chemistry, we are carefully to obferve of of Chemistry Subject, whether it be referable to the cla to the fee Mixts, Compounds or merely confused matters as they are particularly what treatment it requires as a Compounds geneal or beterogeneal Aggregates without or Aggre founding thofe operations, and the effects rval Subjects Mixts, gates.

ing from them, with thofe that belong fr cally to Mixts and Compounds. We must t fore be very circumfpect in the refolution o gregates to prevent their coalition in the c tion; as likewife in the refolution of the pai lar Atoms of Compounds and Mixts, or the tion of their Continuity.

And if the confti parts prove the moft fimple, the Subject be esteemed a Mixt; but if lefs fimple, a pound.

Mixts and to be exami- 26. Having allow’d Earth and Water fo Compounds two material Principles in the generation of A med before it might be expected we fhould first shew Principles. thefe Principles may be found in their purity as they are very rarely to be obtained in that and, by reafon of their extreme minuteness, I otherwise than in the form of vapour; and as are with difficulty, and not without the mo act analysis, obtainable from Compounds proper that we first take a view of Mix

Compounds, and afterwards examine in whi them thefe Principles lie the loofeft.

27. Thefe Principles are more fimply and marily mix’d in Minerals; whence genuine A are chiefly found in the mineral Kingdom.. thefe Mixts the firft are Waters; or very fa exceeding moveable, and thence fluid Bodies.

Waters are either (1) thofe of Rivers wi are the groffeft, and greatly impregns with Earth. (2) Of Springs, which are m or lefs pure, as they are drank nearer or 1 ther from the Fountain-head; or as they i over ftones or foft marfhy Ground. (3) Wells; which if foon drawn, are preferable thofe of Springs. (4) Of Cifterns; which, fresh, are very thin; but they corrupt wi keeping, and become almoft like ftagna Waters; which are unwholefome, putrid ar difpofed for a new refolution. (5) Of Dews thofe of May being very fubtile, and near t elementary Water. (6) Of Rains; which ar lefs fubtile than thofe of Dews, tho’ they ap proach the nearest to them; but more or lef as they follow upon grofs or lighter clouds. (7) Of Snow; which refemble thofe of Rain. (8) Mineral Waters; which are manifeftly compounded: whereto may be added the Me- talline Waters of Mines, and thofe of the whole Ocean.

28. Earths come next; and are a body, folid? of it felf, the moft fix’d, and the foundation of fixedness in Aggregates and Atoms. And as, by the figure of thefe Atoms, earths are difpofed to combine into larger heterogeneous Aggregates, with interfperfed vacuities, or into homogeneous ones; hence arifes the folidity of an Aggregate as ppo’d to faidity.

29. Thefe primitive Earths, no more than Waters, can scarce be found pure of themselves, and uncompounded; much less solid, and in their

own form; but are conftantly fufpended in Wa- ters, tho’ in one more than another. They are alfo’ otherwife mix’d. Thus we every where find bodies that greatly partake of the first vitrefcible pellucid Earth; fuch as Gravel, Sand, Crystal, Diamonds, and all the uncoloured Gems; as the coloured ones greatly partake of the fe- cond*.

30. Of thefe two generical Principles, viz. Wa- dter and Earth, originally mix’d together, but particularly the first and fecond Earth, proceed Salts and Oils;

as from the commixture of the Earths among one another proceed various kinds of coloured Earths. The third Earth is specifi- cally appropriated to Metals t. But from the intimate conjunction of this and the first Earth, with a fuitable quantity of Water, proceeds a dry volatile Salt, the foundation of Arfenic.

31. Now as the more fimple, earthy Bodies, als or terrestrial Solids, whether they be infipid or fapid Mixts, arife from the first and fecond Earth; fo if the third be added, other Concretes are form’d. Thus wherever we meet with the com- mon opake, dufty Earth, metallic matter is there actually lodg’d; and requires nothing but the ad- dition of the third Earth, or the mercurial Prin- ciple, to form it into a perfect Metal. If there- fore the first and fecond Earths, in their purity, be mix’d in due proportion, and many Atoms of this kind be join’d by contiguity; the Aggregate called a Ruby, may be thence produced. But this matter fhou’d be taken from its mine, wl

If to this Bitumen be added that mixture of the first Earth and Water, or there be fome error in the proportion of the mixture, the produce is Sulphur; but if any Metal that is too fluid, or common Quick-filver, be mix’d along with them, it will then be Cinnabar.

If the third Earth be joined to this univerfal Acid, the Concrete of common Salt is produced; that gives the foundation to Arfenic

If the fecond Earth be join’d with it propor- tionably, or in fmall quantity, thence arifes Nitre of Salt-petre.

Thefe Salts are neither folid nor fix’d in their own proper form; but exceedingly volatile: they are however render’d fix’d and ponderable by the adhefion of various compound Earths; and volatile by the conjunction of various com- pound oily Bodies: but they are never more volatile than when join’d with Water alone. Their crystalline Confiftence depends upon the groffer Earths: but more of this fubject in our experimental Doctrine of Salts +. 34. We lately obferv’d that various earthy Concretes arife from the mixture of two Earths. There are feveral Compofitions hereof, tho’ scarce remarkably diftinguifh’d in common ufe. If the firft and third primitive Earths, without Water, adhere to any Metal, thence arifes Arfenic || a volatile, uninflammable body, that gives white- nefs to other metals in fufion; and proves vio- lently corrofive and poisonous to animals. From the third Earth, adhering to any me- talline body, proceeds Quick-filver or Mer-. cury.

From the fecond and firft Earths, wi fmall proportion of Water, that is, from univerfal Acid and the fecond Earth, c Sulphur vivum. From Salpler and Quick-filver join’d t ther proceeds Cinnabar. But if the fe Earth alfo abounds in this Concrete, it th becomes Realgar, the Sandaracha Græcor or native, red Arfenic +. 35. The Salts commonly known, are form’ the fluid Salt, and various terreftrial and meta Mixts: thus the fluid Salt, or univerfal Acid, 6.1.4.33

• If the foundation here gone upon in affigning the M. ture or Compofition of all the natural Bodies, à priori, we ftrictly juft and perfect, a greater degree of knowledge we not neceflary in this affair; for we should then judge an talk as familiarly of the real manner wherein Nature produc Bodies, as if we had been affifting in their formation, or fee the Principles mix and concrete together; and hence be en abled to affign the proportion of each Ingredient employ’d as readily as we do in our own manner of producing arti ficial Bodies. Thus for inftance we should fay of natural Dia monds, and of natural Gold, that they confifted of fuch and fuch proportions of the firft, fecond, and third Earths, with as much exactness as we now fay of Bread, that it is an artifi-

a chalky Earib makes Alum; the fame Acid, with the third or mercurial Earth, makes common Sea-falt; which, with a mixture of a moist and rocky, or clay-earth makes Sal-Gem*. If this univerfal Aid diffolves a vitrifiable Earth, thence comes Borax; and if it diffolves a Metal, thence comes Vitricl.

Lime is rather an artificial Concrete; the Salt concentrated in it being produced by Calcination.

36. We have already obferved, that Lead, Tin, Iron, Copper and Mercury are compound Bo- dies. To thefe may well be added thofe im- mature Metals, Bifmuth, Zink, yellow Marcafite, a Antimony and Regulus of Antimony: for thefe are really metallic bodies, only intermix’d, infected and adulterated with too large a quantity of a certain arfenica! Earth; but Antimony, by an over-proportion of common inflammable Sulphurs whence they all prove volatile and brittle.

37. In fine, mineral Compounds are reduced un- der thefe five Claffes; viz. (1.) Earthy Bodies, . more properly fo called; and thofe either vi- trefcible, or opake, fufible and chalky.

(2.) Impurer metallic Bodies, as thofe above mention- edt, and Quick-filver.

(3.) Sulphureous Bodies, compofed of Bitumen; either with or without a large proportion of the univerfal Acid.

(4.) Vo- latile, Arfenical, or corrofive uninflammable and dry Bodies. And (5.) Humid, corrofive and saline ones.

38. We have hitherto inquired into the fub- alternate Species of mix’d and compound Minerals:

we

we next proceed to Vegetables which fort matter confift of Minerals, more or lefs alt Thus they have their Life, as it were, from ter; and with this receive a certain miirgus & containing a bituminous Fat, and a fubtile v fiable Earth. But fome, inftead of a witrous & attract a more acid one, carrying along with calcarious, earthy Subftances whence in a u table Compound the Mixts that compose it more easily separated and demonftrated.

39. Next we fhall briefly confider the parts Vegetables wherein these Mixts are found, more lefs join’d together; that is, the particular Sı jets of Chemistry, as taken from the vegeta Kingdom.

Vegetables therefore are divided into small as Herbs and larger, as Shrubs and Tre The parts common to them both, are, a Sten or Trunk, Leaves, Flowers, Fruit and Roots in all which there is a great analogy: thus th Trunk contains much Earth, Salt, Rofin o Pitch, and but little Water; all of them grofs The Leaves hold the fame; only in these the

are more fubtile: and the Seed, which is th genuine Fruit, abounds in Oil and a very fub tile Earth. By means of this Divifion we may learn what to expect, (1.) From vegetable Juices; which are either expreffed from the Leaves, or drawn out of the Trunk, before they had come into the Leaves.

(2.) From Woods; as thefe are pieces of the Trunk, (3.) From Roots; as thefe are the fubterraneous part of the Trunk. (4.) From Seeds; as these contain the most fubtile part of the Vegetable; and being diftinguifh’d from what is commonly called the Fruit, as the Fatus is from the Se- cundines, and the Liquors they contain. (5.) And Ĉ 2 lastly,

lastly, from Barks; which are the more refi- nous part of the Trunk.

40. Rofins and Gums are preternatural and vi- olent productions of Vegetables; being as it were the elementary part thereof intercepted in its motion.

Wine, Tartar, and Sugar (which is a fpecies of Tartar) are rather artificial Preparations, by combination: but Manna and Honey are ob- tain’d by both these ways; tho’ Manna rather by the former, and Honey rather by the latter.

41. Animals appear to differ widely from Mi- nerals; all their Aloms being certain Compounds of various kinds of Mixts, variously alter’d, and combined into a specific Aggregate.

But the fuppofed chemical Principles are here found loofer than in other bodies, from the neceffary attenua- tion the Elements undergo in them; the Prepara- tions they afford being very volatile, and reduci- ble to the two moft active Principles, viz. the fecond and third, under the form of Oil and vola- tile Salt: the terrestrial beavy part fubfiding to the bottom, and proving of a calcarious, rather than a vitrefcible nature; from a certain faline fubftance that is intimately burnt into it. j-

42. We are to obferve that fome of thefe Principles are found more copiously in fome parts of Animals than in others. They are the most grofs in the coarfe and folid parts, if taken in that form; but thinner and more abundant in the finer; which then contain the greatest quan- tity of all, when they are refolved by putrefac- tion, and treated by a combining operation.

43. The groffer parts are, (1.) Bones, Hor and Hoofs. (2.) The next in order