Views of Other Faiths

The important philosophies and religions or faiths prevalent in the world at the present time are:

• Buddhism
• Sháuṋkara philosophy
• Pátaiṋjala Philosophy
• Sáḿkhya Philosophy
• Árya Samáj
• Marxism
• Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Buddhism and Sháuṋkara Philosophy

All Ástika or theistic Indian philosophies unanimously believe that Átman or unit consciousness is a continuous flow of Jiṋána or knowledge.

This is called Vijiṋána in Páli.

There is a continuous flow of Jiṋána, or in other words Jiṋána itself is a flow (Praváha). Every object in the universe has its own flow and wave or dynamic force. According to Yoga philosophy Paramátman or Supreme Consciousness is an infinite flow of Jiṋána.

Ekaḿ jiṋánam nityamádantashúnyam Nányat kiḿcit varttate vastu satyam; Tayor bhedo’smin indriyopádhiná vae Jiṋánasyáyam bhásate nanyathaeva. –Shiva Saḿhitá

Lord Buddha did not use the word Átman, hence there was a difference of opinion among the Bhikksus or Buddhist monks after his death.

Three conferences were held to compile the Tripitaka or Buddhist scriptures in Páli

1. Vinaya Pitáka or the practical side
2. Suttapitaka or the theoretical side
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka or the philosophical side.

All of these parts combined together were known as the Tripitaka and were called the Buddhist scriptures. The Bhikhus who patronized or supported the Sannyása Márga or the path of renunciation were not prepared to accept anything more than what was laid down in the Tripitaka, and hence they were called Sthavirávádii or Theravádii, the southern school of Buddhism. Those who were influenced by the Nyáya school of philosophy were called Mahásáḿghika or the northern school of Buddhism.

The word Páli originated from Pallii which means “rural”, rustic or unsophisticated. As Bhagaván Buddha preached in the language of common people, Hindu scholars called his language Bhákhá. Páli was also known as Páli Bháśa. The common people could not follow Saḿskrta which was the language of scholars only.

Later on the Mahásáḿghikas called themselves Maháyánii and they called the Sthaviravádiis Hiinayánii. But the Hiinayániis called themselves Theravádii. In India there was no state backing for Hiinayániis except at the time of the rulers Kaniska, and Vasiska, and hence the Hiinayána did not flourish.

The Maháyána had state backing so it naturally had more followers.

The philosophy of the Hiinayániis was preached in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Java and Borneo, etc., whereas the philosophy of the Maháyániis was propagated in India, Siberia, Japan Tibet, etc.

There are 4 kinds of philosophical doctrines among the Maháyániis caused by the difference of opinion in the Átman and its object.

Bhagaván Buddha used the word “Attá” in Páli for Átman. The word Attá is also used in place of “Self”.

The Bhikkhus could not understand the sense in which Bhagaván Buddha used the word Attá.

Cárváka

At the time of Buddha, Nástika Váda or non-belief in God was dominant.

Maharśi Ajita Keshakamballi was the scholar of the Nástiká Váda. Most of the books on Nástikyaváda were written in incomprehensible language and so its propagation was not very widespread. Ajita Keshakambalii followed Cárváka who had a materialistic philosophy. The Cárváka school of philosophy believes in Caturbhúta or the four fundamental factors.

This is also known as Dehátmaváda, that is, the belief that the body is everything and that the soul is identified with the body. This philosophy accepts Caturbhúta, namely earth, water, fire and air or Kśiti, ap, tejas and marut respectively.

According to Cárváka:

• caetanya (conscious) came into existence by the combination of the 4 bhútas in the same way as the mixing of lime and catechu produces a red colour.
• Paiṋcabhúta or the fifth factor is formed in this way and does not actually exist.

Cárváka philosophy does not believe in Átman, Paramátman and the Vedas. Hence, Cárváka was called Nástika, since those who do not believe in Átman, Paramátman or the Vedas are called Nástika ([[a]]theist).

Púrva Mimáḿsá school of philosophy also does not admit the existence of Paramátman.

Kapila was the propounder of the Sámkhya philosophy. He accepted Átman and the Vedas. But he did not believe in Paramátman.

The Śad́adarshana or the 6 major school of theistic Indian Philosophy believe in the Vedas.

The following are the 6 schools of philosophy.

1. Kapila Sáḿkhya

This accepts the existence of Prakrti and the Vedas but does not accept Paramátman.

2. Pátaiṋjala Sáḿkhya

This believes in innumerable Puruśas and one Prakrti. The creator of the universe according to this school cannot be a Mukta Puruśa or a liberated being.

3. Gaotama Nyáya philosophy

4. Kańáda’s Nyáya philosophy or Vaesheśika.

5. Jaemini’s Púrva Miimámsá or early Miimámsá philosophy

This believes in Kriyákanda or the doctrine of action. Those who believe in this school accept the existence of heaven and hell.

6. Uttára Miimámsá or later Miimámsá philosophy

This was propounded by Vádráyaná Vyása. It believes in Brahma and the vedas but does not believe in Átman and Jagat or the world. This philosophy is commonly known as Vedanta philosophy.

• The Buddhist philosophy believes in all the 5 bhútas or fundamental factors
• Cárváka believes in Caturbhúta or 4 fundamental factors.

Baoddha Darshana and Cárváka philosophy do come under the purview of Śad́adarshana. Neither of them believe in the Vedas. They are atheistic philosophies.

Pramána or validity is of 3 kinds:

1. Pratyakśa or direct knowledge
2. Anumána or inference
3. Agama or authority

Cárváka accepts only pratyakśa as pramána.

[Pratyakśa or perception is the only source of knowledge, and inference (Ańumána) and authority (Ágama) are not to be recognized as sources of knowledge.]

Buddha accepts karmaphala or the reactions of actions, whereas Cárváka does not.

[As long as you live, you should live in joy and happiness for we do not know what happens after death. As long as one lives in the world, one should live in comfort and happiness. One should even eat clarified butter (ghee) by incurring debts, for there is neither heaven nor the reactions of actions, nor Átman or Soul, nor the world beyond death. After the body is cremated how can it be reborn again?]

There is another aspect of Cárváka philosophy, Dehaparińámáváda (i.e. The death of body signifies the end of everything).

[Out of the four fundamental factors emerges consciousness, just as red colour arises from the mixture of betel leaf, catechu and lime.] In this respect Buddhist philosophy is superior to Cárváka philosophy. Bhagaván [Lord] Buddha says, Attá hi attánám náthah.