Metopus' Treatise on Virtue

Virtue is the perfection of human nature.

For every being becomes perfect, and arrives at the summit of excellence according to the proper nature of its virtue.

Thus, a horse’s virtue is that which leads to the perfection of the nature of a horse.

The same reasoning is applicable to the parts of a thing.

Thus, the virtue of the eyes is acuteness of vision.

This in the nature of the eyes is the summit. The virtue of the ears also, is acuteness of hearing= and this is the summit of the nature of the ears.

Thus too, the virtue of the feet is swiftness.

This is the summit of the nature of the feet.

Every virtue should have 3 things:

1. Reason

This makes virtue judge and contemplate. To judge and contemplate pertain to the dianoetic part of the soul

2. Power

This makes virtue prohibit and vanquish. To prohibit and vanquish are the peculiarity of the irrational[66] part of the soul

3. Deliberate choice

This makes virtue love and delight in what is proper. To love and delight in what is proper pertains to both the rational and irrational parts.

• Deliberate choice consists of dianoia [or the discursive energy of reason] and appetite.
• Dianoia therefore, belongs to the rational, but appetite to the irrational part of the soul.

The many virtues, and the generation and nature of virtue, may be perceived from the parts of the soul.

For of the parts of the soul, there are two that rank as the first, viz. the rational and the irrational parts. And the rational part indeed, is that by which we judge and contemplate;

But the irrational part is that by which we are impelled and desire. These however, are either concordant or discordant with each other.

But the contest and dissonance between them, are produced through excess and defect. It is evident therefore, that when the rational vanquishes the irrational part of the soul, endurance and continence are produced; and that when the former leads, and the latter follows, and both accord with each other, then virtue is generated.

Hence, endurance and continence are generated accompanied with pain;

but endurance resists pain, and continence pleasure. Incontinence however, and effeminacy, neither resist nor vanquish [pleasure]. And on this account it happens that men fly from good through pain, but reject it through pleasure. Praise likewise, and blame, and every thing beautiful in human conduct are produced in these parts of the soul. And in short, the nature of virtue derives its subsistence after this manner.

The species however, and the parts of it, may be surveyed as follows= Since there are two parts of the soul, the rational and the irrational; the latter is divided into the irascible and appetitive.

The rational part, indeed, is that by which we judge and contemplate; but the irrational part is that by which we are impelled and desire.

Of this, that which is as it were adapted to defend us, and revenge incidental molestations, is denominated the irascible part; but that which is as it were orectic of, and desires to preserve the proper constitution of the body, is the appetitive part.

It is evident therefore, that the multitude of the virtues, their differences, and their peculiarities, follow conformably to these parts of the soul.

FROM CLINIAS

Every virtue is perfected, as was shown by us in the beginning, from reason, deliberate choice, and power. Each of these, however, is not by itself a part of virtue, but the cause of it.

Such therefore, as have the intellective and gnostic part of virtue,[67] are denominated skilful and intelligent; but such as have the ethical and pre-elective part of it, are denominated useful and equitable.[68]

Since however, man is naturally adapted to act unjustly from exciting causes; and these are three, the love of pleasure in corporeal enjoyments; avarice, in the accumulation of wealth; and ambition, in surpassing those that are equal and similar to him;—this being the case, it is necessary to know, that it is possible to oppose to these such things as procure fear, shame, and desire in men; viz. fear through the laws, shame through the Gods, and desire through the energies of reason.

Hence, it is necessary that youth should be taught from the first to honor the Gods and the laws. For from these, it will be manifest, that every human work, and every kind of human life, by the participation of sanctity and piety, will sail prosperously [over the sea of generation].