Natural and contrived speech

The secret and spirit of speech that is, expression and address - lie in conveying ideas.

If no effort is made to (convey ideas), (speech) is like “dead land” (mawat) 1568 which does not count.

The perfect way of conveying (ideas) is eloquence as shown by the literary critics.

Definition of eloquence

They say that eloquence is conformity of speech to the requirements of the situation. 1570 Knowledge of the conditions and laws governing the conformity of word combinations to the requirements of the situation is the discipline of eloquence (rhetoric).

The conditions and laws were deduced from the Arabic language and have become a sort of rules.

The manner in which word combinations are used indicates the relationship that exists between two interdependent (parts of an utterance). (It does so) with the help of conditions and laws constituting the main part of the rules of Arabic. The situations that apply to the word combinations - which may be earlier or later position, determination or indetermination, implicit or explicit (reference), statements used restricted or absolute, and so on - indicate the situations that envelop from outside the (existing) relationship and the persons discoursing with each other.

They do so with the help of conditions and laws that constitute the rules of a discipline belonging to rhetoric and called the “science of idea expression” (‘ilm al-ma’ani).

Thus, the rules of Arabic are comprised under those of the science of idea expression, because the (purpose of) indicating the (existing) relationship is part of the (purpose of) indicating the situations that envelop that relationship.

Any word combinations unable to indicate the requirements of a given situation because of some defect in the rules governing the vowel endings or the rules governing the ideas, are (likewise) unable to establish conformity (between themselves and) the requirements of the situation; they belong to the (group of things) of which no use is made, which belong in the category of “dead land.”

After the requirements of a given situation have thus been indicated, there come the diverse ways in which the mind moves among the ideas with the help of different kinds of (word) meanings. In its conventional meaning, a word combination indicates one particular idea, but then the mind moves on to what might be the consequence of, or have as its consequence, that idea, or (what might) be similar to it and, thus, express (some idea) indirectly as metaphor or metonymy, as has been established in the proper places.

This moving around causes pleasure to the mind, perhaps even more than (the pleasure) that results from indicating (the requirements of the situation) All these things mean attainment of a conclusion from the argument used to prove it, and attainment, as one knows, is one of the things that cause pleasure.

The different ways the (mind) moves around in this way also have (their) conditions and laws, which are like rules. They were made into a (special) craft and called “the (science of) style” (bayan). 1573 (This science) is sister to the science of idea expression, which indicates the requirements of a given situation.

The (science of style) has reference to the ideas and meanings of the word combinations. Therules of the science of idea expression have reference to the very situations that apply to the word combinations, as far as they affect the meaning. Word and idea depend on each other and stand side by side, 1574 as one knows.

Thus, the science of idea expression and the science of style are both part of rhetoric, and both (together) produce perfect indication and conformity to the requirements of the situation. Consequently, word combinations that fall short of conformity and perfect indication are inferior in eloquence. (Such word combinations) are linked by rhetoricians to the sounds dumb animals make.

The preferred assumption is that they are not Arabic, because Arabic is (the kind of speech) in which indications are in conformity with the requirements of the situation. Thus, eloquence is the basis, genius, spirit, and nature of Arabic speech.

In the usage of (philologists), “natural speech” means the (type of) speech that conveys the intended meaning and, thus, is perfect in its nature and genius. Just speaking is not what is meant by (natural speech) as a (kind of) expression and address; the speaker (who uses natural speech) wants to convey what is in his mind to the listeners in a complete and definite fashion.

Thus, after perfect indication (of the requirements of the situation has been achieved), the word combinations, (if expressed) according to that genius that is basic (to Arabic speech), have (their) different kinds of artistic embellishment. 1575

In a way, they give them the brilliance of correct speech. Such (kinds of artistic embellishment) include the ornamental use of rhymed prose, the use of phrases of identical structure at the end of successive cola (muwazanah), 1576 allusion (tawriyah) to a cryptic idea by a homonym, 1577 and * antithesis, so that there will be affinity (tajanus) between the words and ideas (used).1579 This gives brilliance to speech and pleasure to the ear, and sweetness and beauty, all in addition to indicating (the meaning).

This craft is found represented in the inimitable speech (of the Qur’an) in numerous passages, as, for instance: By the night when it covers; and the day when it reveals itself.1580 Or: As to those who give and fear God and believe in what is most beautiful and so on, to the end of the cola division in the passage. Or:

But as to those who deviate and prefer the life of this world and so on, to the end of the passage. Also: And they think that they are doing good. 1583

There are many similar things (in the Qur’an). (But) it comes (only) after (the meaning) has been indicated perfectly by the word combinations (as they are) basically, before the rhetorical figures occur in them.1584

Rhetorical figures also occurred in pre-Islamic speech, but spontaneously and unintentionally. They are said to occur in the poetry of Zuhayr. 1 585 Among the (early) Muslim (authors), they occur both spontaneously and intentionally. These (authors) did remarkable things with them. The first to have a good knowledge of the method of (rhetorical figures) were Habib b. Aws (Abu Tammam), al-Buhturi, and Muslim b. alWalid. 1586 They very eagerly set out toachieve a (contrived) technique and did remarkable things with it.

The first to concern themselves with (rhetorical figures) were Bashshar b. Burd 1587 and Ibn Harmah, 1590 who were the last (poets whose poems) are used as evidence for (the grammatical and lexicographical problems of) the Arabic language. They were followed by Kulthum b. ‘Amr al-‘Attabi, 1591 Mansur an-Numayri,1592 Muslim b. al-Walid, and Abu Nuwas.

After them came Habib (Abu Tammam) and al-Buhturi. Then, there appeared Ibn alMu’tazz. He gave the whole craft of rhetorical figures its definitive form.