Calligraphy

Writing is the outlining and shaping of letters to indicate audible words which, in turn, indicate what is in the soul. It comes second after oral expression.

It is a noble craft, since it is one of the special qualities of man by which he distinguishes himself from the animals. Furthermore, it reveals what is in (people’s minds.

It enables the intention (of a person) to be carried to distant places, and, thus, the needs (of that person) may be executed without (him) personally taking care of them. 156 It enables (people) to become acquainted with science, learning, with the books of the ancients, and with the sciences and information written down by them.

Because of all these useful aspects, writing is a noble craft.

The transformation of writing in man from potentiality into actuality takes place through instruction. The quality of writing in a town corresponds to the social organization, civilization, and competition for luxuries among its inhabitants, since writing is a craft.

Bedouins are illiterate becauase they have no civilization. The literate among them have an inferior handwriting or can read haltingly.

On the other hand, handwriting in cities with a developed civilization is more proficient, easier, and methodically better.

Thus, contemporary Cairo in Egypt has calligraphy teachers. They teach the pupil by norms and laws how to write each letter. They also let him teach others. This strengthens his respect for teaching. His habit becomes one of the most perfect kind. This comes from the perfection and abundance of crafts there.

Writing is not learned that way in Spain and the Maghrib.

The letters are not learned individually according to norms the teacher gives to the pupil. Writing is learned by imitating complete words. The pupil repeats (these words), and the teacher examines him, until he knows well (how to write) and until the habit (of writing) is at his finger tips. 162 Then, he is called a good (calligrapher).

Arabic writing had already reached its most developed, accurate, and excellent stage in the Tubba’ dynasty, because (that dynasty) had achieved a great sedentary culture and luxury. The handwriting there was called the Himyarite script.

Writing was transplanted from South Arabia to al-Hirah, because the dynasty of al-Mundhir was there. They were relatives of the Tubba’s and shared their group feeling, and they were the founders of Arab rule in Iraq. Their writing was not as good as that of the Tubba’s, because (the time) between the two dynasties was short 163 and, (therefore,) sedentary culture and the crafts and other things depending on it were not developed enough for (calligraphy).

From al-Hirah, the inhabitants of at-Ta’if and the Quraysh learned (writing), as has been said. The person who learned the art of writing from al-Hirah is said to have been Sufyan b.Umayyah, or Harb b. Umayyah. He learned it from Aslam b. Sidrah.

This is a possible theory. It is a more likely theory than that of those who say that they learned it from the Iyad, the inhabitants of the ‘Iraq, because of the verse of an [Iyadi] poet: People to whom belongs the area of the ‘Iraq when They travel together, as well as writing and pen. This is an unlikely theory.

Even though the Iyad settled in the area of the Iraq, they maintained their desert attitude, and handwriting is a sedentary craft. The meaning of the (verse of that) poet is that the Iyad were closer to handwriting and the pen than other Arabs, because they were closer to an urban environment.

The theory that the inhabitants of the Hijaz learned (writing) from the inhabitants of al-Hirah, who, in turn, had learned it from the Tubba’s and the Himyar, is the most plausible one.

In 165 the biography of one of Milik’s companions, Ibn Farrukh-‘Abdallah b. Farrukh-al-Qayrawani al-Firisi alAndalusi, 1 66 in the Kitab at-Takmilah of Ibn al-Abbar, I have seen the following remark, reported by Ibn Farrukh on the authority of ‘Abd-ar-Rahman b. Ziyid b. An’um, on the authority of his father, who said:

The Himyarites had a script called musnad. 175 The letters were written separately. It could be studied only with their permission. The Mudar learned the Arabic script from the Himyar. However, they did not write it well, as is the case with crafts practiced in the desert.

The crafts there have no firmly established methods and show no inclination toward accuracy and elegance. There is a wide gap between the desert attitude and craftsmanship, and Bedouins can for the most part dispense with crafts. Thus, the writing of the Arabs was a Bedouin (script), exactly like, or similar to, the writing the Arab (Bedouins) use at this time.

Or, we might say that the writing the Arab (Bedouins) use at this time shows a better technique, because (the Arab Bedouins today) are closer to sedentary culture and have morecontact with cities and dynasties (than the Mudar of old). The Mudar were more firmly rooted in desert life and more remote from sedentary areas than the inhabitants of the Yemen, the ‘Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. Arabic writing at the beginning of Islam was, therefore, not of the best quality nor of the greatest accuracy and excellence.

It was not (even) of medium quality, because the Arabs possessed the savage desert attitude and were not familiar with crafts. One may compare what happened to the orthography of the Qur’an on account of this situation. The men around Muhammad wrote the Qur’an in their own script, which was not of a firmly established, good quality.

Most of the letters were in contradiction to the orthography required by persons versed in the craft of writing.

The Qur’anic script of (the men around Muhammad) was then imitated by the men of the second generation, because of the blessing inherent in the use of an orthography that had been used by the men around Muhammad, who were the best human beings after (Muhammad himself) and who had received his revelation from the book and word of God.

At the present time, people similarly imitate the handwriting of saints or scholars because of the blessing (inherent in that), and they follow the orthography whether it be wrong or right.

One could hardly compare these men to the men around Muhammad or the things they write down to (the divine revelation) they wrote down! Consequently, (the Quranic orthography of the men around Muhammad) was followed and became established, and the scholars acquainted with it have called attention to passages where (this is noticeable).

No attention should be paid in this connection to the assumption of certain incompetent (scholars) that (the men around Muhammad) knew well the art of writing and that the alleged discrepancies between their writing and the principles of orthography are not discrepancies, as has been alleged, but have a reason.

For instance, they explain the addition of the alif in la-‘adhbahannahu “I shall indeed slaughter him” as an indication that the slaughtering did not take place (la-adhbahannahu). The addition of the ya’ in bi-ayydin “with hands (power),” they explain as an indication that the divine power is perfect.

There are similar things based on nothing but purely arbitrary assumptions. The only reason that caused them to (assume such things) is their belief that (their explanations) would free the men around Muhammad from the suspicion of deficiency, in the sense that they were not able to write well.

They think that good writing is perfection. Thus, they do not admit the fact that the men around Muhammad were deficient in (writing). They (want to) consider them as perfect by ascribing good writing to them, and they seek to explain (orthographic peculiarities) that are contrary to good orthographic usage.

This is not correct. It should be known that as far as (the men around Muhammad) are concerned, writing has nothing to do with perfection. Writing is an urban craft that serves to make a living, as has been shown above.

Perfection in a craft is something relative. It is not absolute perfection. A deficiency from (perfection in the crafts) does not essentially affect one’s religion or personal qualities. It merely affects things that have to do with making a living, and (does so) in accordance with the (existing) civilization and co-operation for (civilization), since writing indicates what is in the souls.

The Prophet was illiterate. That was perfection so far as he was concerned and it was in keeping with his station, because he was noble and had nothing to do with the practical crafts, all of which are matters connected with making a living and with civilization. (On the other hand,) as far as we are concerned, illiteracy is not a perfection. (Muhammad) was exclusively devoted to his Lord.

We, however, must co-operate in order to make life in this world possible for us. The same applies to all the crafts, including even the theoretical 178 sciences. As far as (Muhammad) is concerned, perfection means that he has nothing to do with any of them. The opposite is the case with us.Later, royal authority came to the Arabs.

They conquered cities and took possession of provinces. They settled in alBasrah and al-Kufah, and the dynasty needed the art of writing.

At that time, they (began) writing. They sought to practice and study it, and it came into common use. As a result, a high degree of excellence in (writing) was achieved. (Writing) became firmly established. In al-Kufah and alBasrah, it reached a great degree of accuracy, but did not reach the limit (of perfection).

The Kufic script is still known at this time. The Arabs then spread over all the regions and provinces and conquered Ifriqiyah and Spain. The ‘Abbasids founded Baghdad.

There, the different kinds of writing reached the limit (of perfection), because civilization was highly developed in (Baghdad), since it had become the home of Islam and the center of the Arab dynasty.

The 180 norms of writing used in Baghdad were different from those in al-Kufah, in that they inclined toward wellshaped letters, brilliancy, and splendor. This difference became established (and lasted) for a long time. The wazir (Aba) ‘Ali b. Muglah 181 became its protagonist in Baghdad. He was followed in this respect by the secretary, ‘Ali b. Hilal, who is known as Ibn al-Bawwab.182 The tradition of instruction in the Baghdadi and Kufi writing ended with him in the 10th century and afterwards. The forms and the norms of the Baghdadi script then departed still further from Kufic, and eventually, there was a complete break.

Later on, the differences were accentuated by masters who always tried to find new forms and improved norms of writing, up to the time of such later calligraphers as Yaqut al-Musta’simi 184 and al-Wall ‘Ali al-‘Ajami. 185 The tradition of the teaching of writing stopped with them.

This type of calligraphy was transferred to Egypt where the script was different from the ‘Iraqi script.

The non-Arabs learned the Iraqi script in Iraq. It turned out to be different from that of the Egyptians.

The Ifriqi script, the old form of which is (still) known at this time, was close to the forms of the eastern script.

Spain became the domain of the Umayyads. Their situation as to sedentary culture, the crafts, and the various scripts was a special one. As a result, the Spanish script became special too.

Civilization and sedentary culture developed greatly everywhere in the various Muslim dynasties. Royal authority increased, and the sciences were cultivated.

Books were copied, and they were well written and bound.

Castles and royal libraries were filled with them in an incomparable way. The inhabitants of the different regions vied with and rivaled each other in this respect. Then, the Muslim empire became disorganized and shrank.

With its shrinking, all these things shrank, too. With the disappearance of the caliphate, Baghdad lost its outstanding position. The position it had held with regard to calligraphy and (the art of) writing, and, indeed, with regard to scholarship (in general) was taken over by Egypt and Cairo.

The art of writing continues to be cultivated there at this time. There are teachers of writing there who are employed just to teach the letters. For that, they have norms of how the letters are to be drawn and shaped. These norms are generally recognized among them.

The student soon learns to draw and form the letters well, as he learns them by sensual perception, 186 becomes skilled in them through practice in writing them, and learns them in the form of scientific norms. Therefore, his letters turn out to be as well formed as possible.

The inhabitants of Spain, on the other hand, were dispersed throughout the(various) regions when the rule of the Arabs in Spain and that of the Berbers who succeeded (the Arabs), were annihilated and the Christian nations gained the upper hand.

From (the time of) the Lamtunah (Almoravid) dynasty down to this time, they have spread all over the coast of the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah. They permitted the people settled (there) to share in the crafts they possessed, and they attached themselves to the ruling dynasty in Northwest Africa.

In this way, their script replaced the Ifriqi script and wiped it out. The scripts of al-Qayrawan and al-Mahdiyah were forgotten, once the customs and crafts of (the two cities) were forgotten. All the various scripts of the inhabitants of Ifriqiyah were assimilated to the Spanish script used in Tunis and adjacent regions, because there were so many Spaniards there after the exodus from eastern Spain. 187 The (old script) has been preserved in the Jarid, where people had no contact with those who wrote the Spanish script and were not in close touch with them, because (the Spaniards who came to Northwest Africa) used to proceed 188 to the capital city of Tunis.

The script of the inhabitants of Ifriqiyah thus became a representative 189 of the Spanish type of writing. Eventually, the shadow of the Almohad dynasty receded somewhat, and sedentary culture and luxury retrogressed with the retrogression of civilization.

At that time, writing also suffered a setback, and its forms deteriorated. The method of teaching writing was no longer known, in consequence of the (general) corruption of sedentary culture and the decrease in civilization. Traces of the Spanish script remain there.

They attest to the (perfection in it) which the people had formerly possessed. The existence of such traces is explained by the fact that, as we have mentioned before, 190 it is difficult to wipe out the crafts once they are firmly established in a sedentary culture. In the later Merinid dynasty in Morocco, a kind of Spanish script established itself, because (the Spaniards) were close neighbors and the (Spaniards) who left (Spain) soon settled in Fez, and the Merinids employed them during all the days of their rule.

But in regions far from the seat and capital of the realm, writing was not cared for, and it was forgotten as if it had never been known. The (various) types of script used in Ifriqiyah and the two Maghribs inclined to be ugly and far from excellent. When books were copied, it was useless to look at them critically.

Study of them merely caused pain and trouble, because the texts were very corrupt and full of clerical errors, and the letters were no longer well formed. Thus, they could be read only with some difficulty. In this way, writing was affected like all the other crafts by the decrease of sedentary culture and the corruption of the (ruling) dynasties.