The Tiraz

It is part of royal and governmental pomp and dynastic custom to have the names of rulers or their peculiar marks embroidered on the silk, brocade, or pure silk garments that they wear.

The writing is done by weaving a gold or colored thread different from the fabric’s color. It depends on the skill of the weavers.

Royal garments are embroidered with such a tiraz, in order:

• to increase the prestige of the ruler or some other person the ruler distinguishes

The pre-Islamic non-Arab rulers used to make a tiraz of pictures and figures of kings, or (other) figures and pictures specifically (designed) for it. The Muslim rulers later on changed that and had their own names embroidered together with other words of good omen or prayer.

In the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties, the tiraz was one of the most splendid things and honors. The houses within the palaces in which such garments were woven were called “tiraz houses.”

The person who supervised them was called “tiraz master.” He was in charge of the craftsmen, the implements, and the weavers in (the tiraz houses), the payment of their wages, the care of their implements, and the control of their work.

The office of tiraz master was entrusted by the Abbasids to their intimates and their most trusted clients. The same was the case with the Umayyads in Spain and their successors, the reyes de taifas, as well as with the ‘Ubaydid (-Fatimids) in Egypt and the eastern non-Arab rulers contemporary with them.

When luxury and cultural diversity receded with the receding power of the (great) dynasties, and when the number of (small) dynasties grew, the office and its administration completely ceased to exist in most dynasties.

When, at the beginning of the sixth [twelfth] century, the Almohads succeeded the Umayyads, they did not have the tiraz at the beginning of their dynasty, because they had been taught by their imam Muhammad b. Tumart al-Mahdi the ways of religion and simplicity.

They were too austere to wear garments of silk and gold. The office (of the tiraz), therefore, had no place in their dynasty. Their descendants in the later (years) of the dynasty, however, re-established it in part, but it was not nearly as splendid (as before).

At the present time, we have personally seen quite a lot of (tiraz manufacture) in the flourishing and proud Merinid dynasty in the Maghrib. The Merinids had learned it from the contempory dynasty of the Ibn al-Ahmar (Nasrids) in Spain.

They (in turn) followed the tiraz customs of the reyesa

In the contemporary Turkish dynasty of Egypt and Syria, the tiraz is very much cultivated in accordance with the importance of the realm of that dynasty and the civilization of its country. However, the tiraz is not produced within the houses and palaces of the dynasty, and it is not an office of the dynasty. The tiraz which is required by the dynasty is woven by craftsmen familiar with the craft, from silk and pure gold.

They call it zarkash, a Persian word. The name of the ruler oramir is embroidered on it. It is made by craftsmen for the dynasty, together with other fine products, such as are fitting for (the dynasty) and are produced for it. God determines night and day. He is the best heir.596

Large tents and tent walls

One of the emblems of royal authority and luxury is small and large tents and canopies of linen, wool, and cotton, with linen and cotton ropes.

They are used for display on journeys. They are of different kinds, large or small, according to the wealth and affluence of the dynasty. At the beginning of the dynasty, the same type of housing used by the people of the dynasty before they have achieved royal authority, continues to be used. At the time of the first Umayyad caliphs, the Arabs continued to use the dwellings they had, tents of leather and wool.

Only a very few of the Arabs had at that date ceased to live in the Bedouin manner. When they went on raids or went to war, they traveled with all their camels, their nomad households (hilal), and their dependent women and children, as is still the case with the Arabs at this time. Their armies, therefore, consisted of many nomad households, and the distance between the encampments was great.

The groups were widely separated, and each group was too far away to see the other, as is still the case with the Arabs. That was why ‘Abd-al-Malik used to need “drivers” (saqah “rear guard”) to keep the people together and make them follow him, in the event they did not move after he had started to move. It is reported that ‘Abd-al-Malik employed al-Hajjaj for that purpose upon Rawh b. Zinba’s 597 recommendation. The story of how al-Hajjaj, as soon as he was appointed to that office, had the large and ordinary tents of Rawh burned when he discovered they were not on the move the day ‘Abd-al- Malik had begun to move, is well known. The fact that al-Hajjaj was entrusted with the office shows what rank he held among the Arabs. 598 The task of getting them to move was entrusted only to a person in no danger of being attacked by stupid Arab groups, one who possessed a group feeling sufficient to forestall such attacks.

Therefore, ‘Abd-al-Malik singled out al-Hajjaj for the rank, because he was confident that al-Hajjaj possessed enough group feeling and energy for it. The Arab dynasty then adopted diverse ways of sedentary culture and ostentation.

People settled in towns and cities. They were transformed from tent dwellers into palace dwellers. They exchanged the camel for the horse and the donkey as riding animals. Now, they used linen fabrics for their dwellings on their journeys, fashioning them into houses (tents) of various shapes and sizes, round, 599

oblong, or square. In this connection, they displayed the greatest possible pomp and art.

Amirs and army leaders surrounded their large tents and canopies with a tent wall of linen. In the language of the Berbers of the Maghrib, the tent wall is called afrag. 600 It is restricted to the ruler there. No one else has it. In the East, it is used by every amir, whether he is the ruler or not.

(The habits of) luxurious living then caused women and children to stay behind in their palaces and mansions. People, therefore, traveled light. The spaces between the encampments of the army became less far apart. Army and ruler encamped in one and the same camp, which was completely within the field of vision (of a single observer). It was a pretty sight because of the various colors. This remained the way dynasties displayed their luxury.

It has also been this way in the Almohad and Zanatah dynasties whose shadow extends over us. At the beginning of their power, when they traveled theyused the ordinary sleeping tents they had used before they achieved royal authority.

However, eventually, the dynasty adopted the ways of luxury, and people began to dwell in palaces. Then, they turned to using tents both large and small to a greater extent than they had intended (when they started using them).

It is a great luxury. However, armies become more vulnerable to night attacks when they are assembled in one place, where a sudden attack may involve them all. Furthermore, they do not have their families and children with them, and it is for their families and children they would be willing to die.

Therefore, other protective measures are needed in this connection, as we shall mention. 601

The prayer enclosure (magsurah) and the prayer during the (Friday) sermon.

These 2 things are caliphal prerogatives and royal emblems in Islam.

They are not known in non-Muslim dynasties.

The enclosure for the ruler to pray in is a latticed screen around the prayer niche (mihrab), and the space immediately adjacent. The first to use one was Mu’awiyah b. Abi Sufyan, after a Kharijite had stabbed him.

The first to use one was Marwan b. alHakam, after a Yemenite had stabbed him. 603 Afterwards, all the caliphs used it. It became a custom distinguishing the ruler from the rest of the people during prayer.

It arises only when dynasties are luxurious and flourishing, as is the case with all pomp. It remained this way in all Muslim dynasties when the ‘Abbasid dynasty dissolved and the number of different dynasties in the East grew. It also remained so in Spain when the Umayyad dynasty was destroyed and the reyes de ta’ifas became numerous. As for the Maghrib, the Aghlabids used it in al-Qayrawan. It was used later on by the’Ubaydid(-Fatimid) caliphs and by their Sinhajah governors of the Maghrib, by the Banu Badis in al-Qayrawan and by the Banu Hammad in al-Qal’ah. 604 When the Almohads then took possession of all the Maghrib and Spain, they abolished the institution of (the prayer enclosure) in accordance with the desert attitude that characterized them. But then the dynasty flourished and acquired its share of luxury. When the third Almohad ruler, Ya’qub al-Mansur, appeared, he used a prayer enclosure.

Afterwards, its use remained a custom of the rulers of the Maghrib and of Spain. The same was the case with all other dynasties. This is how God proceeds with His servants.

As to the prayer from the pulpit (minbar) during the (Friday) sermon, it should be said that the caliphs at first directed the prayers themselves. Therefore, they used to say a prayer (for themselves), after the obligatory prayer for the Prophet and the blessings for the men around him had been spoken.

The first to use a pulpit was ‘Amr b. al-‘As when he built his mosque in Egypt. ‘Umar (b. al-Khattab) wrote to him= “And now= I have heard that you use a pulpit and thus raise yourself above the necks of the Muslims. Is it not sufficient for you that you are standing while the Muslims are at your heels? Therefore, I urge you to smash it to bits.”

When pomp came into being and the caliphs came to be prevented from (personally delivering) the sermon and leading the prayer, they appointed delegates for both (tasks). The preacher mentioned the caliph from the pulpit. He mentioned his name in praise and prayed for him, because God had appointed him in theinterest of the world, and because a prayer at such an hour was thought likely to be heard. Also, the ancients had said= “He who has a good prayer shall say it for the ruler.”

The first to pray for the caliph during the sermon was Ibn ‘Abbas. As Ali’s governor in al-Basrah, he prayed for ‘Ali during his sermon.

He said: “O God, help Ali, (who represents) the truth.”

This practice was continued afterwards.

Only the caliph was (mentioned). But when the time came that the caliphs were secluded and under the control of others, the men who were in control of the (various) dynasties often shared the (prayer) with the caliph, and their names were mentioned after his.

When these dynasties disappeared, (the custom) also disappeared.

Only the ruler was privileged to be mentioned in the prayer from the pulpit, and no one else.

No one was permitted to share that privilege with the ruler or to aspire to do so.

The founders of dynasties often neglected this institution when the dynasty still had a low standard of living and preserved the negligent and coarse Bedouin attitude.

They were satisfied with a summary, anonymous reference to the one entrusted with the affairs of the Muslims. Such a sermon was called an “Abbasid sermon.”

This meant that the summary prayer could refer only to the ‘Abbasid caliph, following the ancient tradition. They did not think of going beyond that, of clearly indicating the ruler and pronouncing his name.

The story goes that the amir Abu Zakariya’ Yahya b. Abi Hafs took Tlemcen away from the founder of the Abdal-Wadid dynasty, Yaghamrasin b. Zayyan.

He then decided upon returning him to power under certain conditions, which he stipulated. Among them was the condition that his (Abu Zakariya"s) name should be mentioned from the pulpits of (Yaghamrasin’s) province. On that occasion, Yaghamrasin said:

“They (the pulpits) are those pieces of wood 609 of theirs from which they mention whomever they like.”

The ambassador of al-Mustansir, the third 610 Hafsid caliph in Tunis, was at the court of the founder of the Merinid dynasty, Ya’qub b. ‘Abd-al-Haqq. One day, he was late in attending the Friday service. Ya’qub was informed that the ambassador did not attend the service because the sermon did not include mention of his ruler.

Thereupon, Ya’qub gave permission to pray for him. This was one of the reasons why the Merinids took up the (Hafsid) propaganda. Such was the attitude of dynasties at the beginning, when they still had a low standard of living and preserved the Bedouin outlook.

But when their political eyes were opened and they looked toward (all) the aspects of royal authority and perfected the details of sedentary culture and the ideas of ostentation and pomp, they adopted all the external attributes (of royal authority) and exhausted all the possibilities in this respect. They disliked the idea that anyone else might share in them, and they were afraid that they might lose them and that their dynasty would be deprived of the effect of them.