The Origin Of Justice And Property

Hume’s Division of Labour

We now examine two distinct questions:

1. How the rules of justice are established by men’s artifice, and
2. Why we attribute a moral beauty and deformity to the observance or neglect of these rules.

At first sight, nature seems to have been most cruel to man of all animals, in:

• the innumerable wants and needs which she has loaded him, and
• the slender means which she affords to relieve these needs.

In other creatures, these two concerns generally compensate each other. A lion is a voracious animal which has many needs. But we see that its make, temper, agility, courage, arms, and force are proportional to his wants. The sheep and ox do not have the lion’s advantages. But their appetites are moderate and their food is easy to get.

This unnatural conjunction of infirmity and necessity is only observed most perfectly in man. The food he needs requires his labour to be produced. He must have clothes and lodging to defend him against the weather. He has no arms, force, or other natural abilities to answer so many necessities.

He is able to supply his defects only through society.
    Through this, he can raise himself up to be equal with his fellow-creatures, and even be superior to them.
By society, all his infirmities are compensated.
    Even if his wants multiply, his abilities are still more augmented.
    It leaves him more satisfied and happy than in a savage and solitary condition.
When every person labours apart only for himself, his force is too small to execute any considerable work.
    His labour is employed in supplying all his different necessities.
    He never attains a perfection in any particular art.
    His force and success are not at all times equal.
    The smallest failure in either of these must come with inevitable ruin and misery.
Society remedies these three inconveniences.
    By the conjunction of forces, our power is augmented.
    By the partition of employments, our ability increases.
    By mutual succour, we are less exposed to fortune and accidents.
Society becomes advantageous by this additional force, ability, and security.

The First And Original Principle Of Human Society

But to form society:
    the society must be advantageous, and
    men must be sensible of these advantages.
It is impossible for them to know this in their wild uncultivated state by study and reflection alone.
The natural appetite between the sexes is the first and original principle of human society.
    Fortunately, this necessity is a more present and obvious remedy to the other human necessities which have remote and obscure remedies.
    This unites them and preserves their union until a new tie takes place in their concern for their offspring.
        This new concern also becomes a principle of union between the parents and offspring.
        It forms a bigger society where the parents:
            govern by their superior strength and wisdom, and
            are restrained in their authority by that natural affection for their children.
    In a short time, custom and habit operates on the tender minds of the children.
        It makes them sensible of their advantages from society.
        It gradually fashions them for it by rubbing off those rough corners and untoward affections which prevent their coalition.

No matter how necessary a union is for human nature and no matter how lust and natural affection render a union unavoidable, there are other particulars in our natural temper and outward circumstances which are:
    very incommodious, and
    even contrary to the needed conjunction.
Our selfishness is the most considerable factor.
    I know:
        that my representation of selfishness here has been carried too far, and
        that certain philosophers describe mankind's selfishness as monsters.
Regarding selfishness, I think that it is rare to meet a person who loves anyone better than himself.
    Yet it is as rare to meet with a person whose affections, taken together, do not overbalance all the selfish ones.
Consult common experience.
    The master directs the whole family expences.
    But there are few who do not bestow most of their fortunes on:
        the pleasures of their wives, and
        the education of their children, reserving the smallest portion for their own proper use and entertainment.
    We can observe this on those who have such endearing ties.
    We may presume that the case would be the same with others, if they were placed in a like situation.

This generosity must be acknowledged to the honour of human nature.
    But we may also remark that so noble an affection, instead of fitting men for large societies, is almost as contrary to them as the most narrow selfishness.
Each person loves himself more than any person.
    Of other people, he loves his relations and acquaintances the most.
    This must necessarily produce an opposition of passions and actions which can be dangerous to the new-established union.