Vice And Virtue

With these requirements [limitations], we can:

• examine the causes of pride and humility.
• see whether in every case we can discover the double relations by which they operate on the passions.

There will be no further scruple with the present system if we find that all these causes:

• are related to self
• produce a pleasure or uneasiness separate from the passion.

We shall principally prove the latter point as the former is obvious.

Vice and virtue are the most obvious causes of these passions.

Recently, it has been asked whether morality:

• is based on natural and original principles, or
• arises from interest and education.

I will examine this in book 3.

My hypotheses are solid.

If morality had no foundation in nature, vice and virtue from self-interest or the prejudices of education would produce a real pain and pleasure in us.

• Every passion, habit, or turn of character which gives us advantage or prejudice, gives a delight or uneasiness.
  • Approbation or disapprobation arises from this.

We easily gain from the generosity of others.

• But greed makes us lose.

Courage defends us.

• Cowardice lays us open to attack.

Justice supports society.

• Injustice would quickly ruin of society.

This why the those qualities are esteemed as virtues and vices.

This moral hypothesis is an absolute and invincible proof of my system.

If all morality is based on the pain or pleasure, then all the effects of morality must be derived from:

• the same pain or pleasure
• pride and humility, among other passions.

The very essence of:

• virtue is to produce pleasure
• vice is to give pain

Virtue and vice must be part of our character to excite pride or humility.

What further proof can we want for the double relation of impressions and ideas?

Some people maintain that morality is something real, essential, and founded on nature.

• From this opinion, the same unquestionable argument may be derived.

From a primary constitution of nature, certain characters and passions produce a pain and others excite a pleasure, by the very view and contemplation.

This explains the distinction between:

• vice and virtue
• the origin of moral rights and obligations

We approve of a behavior if we feel a natural delight from it.

We disapprove of a behavior if we feel a natural unease from it.

Therefore, pain and pleasure are the primary causes and effects of:

• vice and virtue
• consequently, of pride [egp] and humility [shame]

Pain and pleasure are at least inseparable from vice and virtue, if not their causes.

A generous and noble character gives satisfaction.

    <!-- ◦ It never fails to charm and delight us even if presented only in a poem or fable. -->

Cruelty and treachery naturally displease us.

It is impossible ever to reconcile us to these qualities in ourselves or others.

<!-- • Thus one hypothesis of morality is an undeniable proof of the foregoing system, and the other at worst agrees with it. -->

According to the vulgar systems of ethics, pride [ego] and humility [shame] are our moral duty.

• This is because the things that make us proud or ashamed are connected with pleasure and uneasiness and not are the qualities of the mind alone.

No one has been able to explain why the things that make us proud or ashamed make us proud or ashamed.

They say that we merely have those feelings.

These feelings make us see qualities are good or bad.

• We get pleasure from good things

• We get unease from bad things

The vulgar are unable to tell why we have that pleasure or uneasiness.

Therefore, the power of bestowing these opposite sensations is the very essence of true and false wit. ◦ Consequently, it is the cause of that pride or humility which arises from them.

The vulgar might find it strange that I say:

• virtue excites pride [ego], when they think that vice excites pride
• vice produces humility [shame], when they think that virtue excites humility.

I define:

• pride [ego] as the agreeable impression when our virtue, beauty, riches or power makes us satisfied with ourselves.
• humility [shame] as the opposite impression.

Pride is not always a vice.

Humility is not always a virtue.