Types of Courage

Courage proper is somewhat of the kind I have described, but there are dispositions, differing in 5 ways,[18] which also bear in common parlance the name of Courage.

1. The Courage of Citizenship

This resembles the true Courage.

The members of a community brave danger motivated by:

• the penalties and disgrace held out by the laws to cowardice
• the dignities conferred on the Brave

Such is the kind of Courage Homer exhibits in his characters. Hector for example says,

“Polydamas will be the first to fix Disgrace upon me.”

Diomed says:

“For Hector surely will hereafter say, Speaking in Troy, Tydides by my hand”

In the same rank one would be inclined to place those also who act under compulsion from their commanders.

Yet are they really lower, because not a sense of honour but fear is the motive from which they act, and what they seek to avoid is not that which is base but that which is simply painful: commanders do in fact compel their men sometimes, as Hector says (to quote Homer again),

“But whomsoever I shall find cowering afar from the fight, The teeth of dogs he shall by no means escape.”

Those commanders who station staunch troops by doubtful ones,[19] or who beat their men if they flinch, or who draw their troops up in line with the trenches, or other similar obstacles, in their rear, do in effect the same as Hector, for they all use compulsion.

But a man is to be Brave, not on compulsion, but from a sense of honour.

2. Experience and Skill in the various particulars

This is thought to be a species of Courage. Socrates also thought that Courage was knowledge.[20]

This quality is exhibited of course by different men under different circumstances, but in warlike matters, with which we are now concerned, it is exhibited by the soldiers (“the regulars”):

There are many things in war of no real importance[21] which these have been constantly used to see; so they have a show of Courage because other people are not aware of the real nature of these things.

Then again by reason of their skill they are better able than any others to inflict without suffering themselves, because they are able to use their arms and have such as are most serviceable both with a view to offence and defence:

So that their case is parallel to that of armed men fighting with unarmed or trained athletes with amateurs, since in contests of this kind those are the best fighters, not who are the bravest men, but who are the strongest and are in the best condition.

In fact, the regular troops come to be cowards whenever the danger is greater than their means of meeting it;

Supposing, for example, that they are inferior in numbers and resources: then they are the first to fly.

But the mere militia stand and fall on the ground (which as you know really happened at the Hermæum),[22] for in the eyes of these flight was disgraceful and death preferable to safety bought at such a price: while “the regulars” originally went into the danger under a notion of their own superiority,

But on discovering their error they took to flight,[23] having greater fear of death than of disgrace; but this is not the feeling of the Brave man.

3. Mere Animal Spirit

This is sometimes brought under the term Courage:

They are thought to be Brave who are carried on by mere Animal Spirit, as are wild beasts against those who have wounded them, because in fact the really Brave have much Spirit, there being nothing like it for going at danger of any kind; whence those frequent expressions in Homer, “infused strength into his spirit,” “roused his strength and spirit,” or again, “and keen strength in his nostrils,” “his blood boiled:” for all these seem to denote the arousing and impetuosity of the Animal Spirit.

They that are truly Brave act from a sense of honour, and this Animal Spirit co-operates with them;

But wild beasts from pain, that is because they have been wounded, or are frightened; since if they are quietly in their own haunts, forest or marsh, they do not attack men.

Surely they are not Brave because they rush into danger when goaded on by pain and mere Spirit, without any view of the danger: else would asses be Brave when they are hungry, for though beaten they will not then leave their pasture: profligate men besides do many bold actions by reason of their lust.

We may conclude then that they are not Brave who are goaded on to meet danger by pain and mere Spirit.

But still this temper which arises from Animal Spirit appears to be most natural, and would be Courage of the true kind if it could have added to it moral choice and the proper motive.

So men also are pained by a feeling of anger, and take pleasure in revenge; but they who fight from these causes may be good fighters, but they are not truly Brave (in that they do not act from a sense of honour, nor as reason directs, but merely from the present feeling), still they bear some resemblance to that character.

Nor, again, are the Sanguine and Hopeful therefore Brave: since their boldness in dangers arises from their frequent victories over numerous foes.

The two characters are alike, however, in that both are confident; but then the Brave are so from the afore-mentioned causes, whereas these are so from a settled conviction of their being superior and not likely to suffer anything in return (they who are intoxicated do much the same, for they become hopeful when in that state);

But when the event disappoints their expectations they run away: now it was said to be the character of a Brave man to withstand things which are fearful to man or produce that impression, because it is honourable so to do and the contrary is dishonourable.

This is why it is thought to be a greater proof of Courage to be fearless and undisturbed under the pressure of sudden fear than under that which may be anticipated, because Courage then comes rather from a fixed habit, or less from preparation: since as to foreseen dangers a man might take his line even from calculation and reasoning, but in those which are sudden he will do so according to his fixed habit of mind.

5. Those who are acting under Ignorance

They show Courage and are not very far from the Hopeful.

But still they are inferior as they have no opinion of themselves; which the others have, and therefore stay and contest a field for some little time.

But they who have been deceived fly the moment they know things to be otherwise than they supposed, which the Argives experienced when they fell on the Lacedæmonians, taking them for the men of Sicyon.